Bob Jones University Essay Example for Free

Bob Jones University Essay Freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of choice, and more recently freedom from racial persecution; all of these freedoms belong to each and every person who is a citizen of the United States. Yet can any one of these freedoms be compromised to let another prevail? Take freedom of religion and racial discrimination, can one be discriminated against because of his color just because another’s religion teaches racism? Or can a certain religion be discriminated against because it teaches racism. Even more importantly can the federal government legally force people to change how they believe or deprive them of certain benefits because of their beliefs? These exact arguments were at the center of a highly controversial court case that was brought before the Supreme Court in 1975. The case was between the Internal Revenue Service and a Christian college, Bob Jones University. The IRS claimed that Bob Jones University’s admittances policies were racially discriminatory and subsequently revoked their tax-exempt status as a private school. However BJU countersued on the basis of encroaching their First Amendment rights of freedom of religion. Bob Jones University was founded as a â€Å"whites only† college in 1927 by evangelist Bob Jones Sr. in a small town called College Point, Florida. In 1933, the school moved to Cleveland, Tennessee; then it moved again in 1947 to Greenville, South Carolina, its present location. BJU students, around 5000 from kindergarten through college and onto graduate school, are studying for ministry or some other type of Christian service. Over the course of its existence, the university has had upwards of 70,000 students sit under the teachings of Bob Jones. The school has over 100 academic majors for undergraduates and another 50 for graduate students to choose from. Bob Jones University has been a â€Å"whites only† institution from the time it was founded in 1927. Bob Jones Sr. in a radio address that he gave in 1960 outlined his philosophy on the subject of segregation. In the address titled â€Å"Is Segregation Scriptural? † he stated: â€Å"God is the author of segregation and if you are against it then you are against God. † Before 1964 no African Americans were admitted to the school, however after the Civil Rights Act only married African Americans students were admitted, the after 1975 all African Americans were admitted. BJU adheres to a strict code of conduct in regards to the on-campus behavior of its students. According to the handbook, â€Å"Dishonesty, lewdness, sensual behavior, adultery, homosexuality, sexual perversion of any kind, pornography, illegal use of drugs, and drunkennessall are clearly condemned by Gods word and prohibited here† (13). It is perhaps understandable that a strict Christian university would condemn immoral behavior of students and faculty. When the IRS revoked the university’s tax-exempt status, the United States was at a key point in the understanding of its internal culture. Freedoms of religion and speech were marked everywhere either through political demonstration, or the tolerance and acceptance of differing religious viewpoints. BJU, however, believed interracial dating and marriage went against God and their religious ethos. It was this particular factor that contributed to the IRS first informing the university in 1970 that their tax-exempt status would be revoked. By law, universities were granted this exempt as an educational, charitable and/or religious institution. BJU’s policies were based on racism, according to the IRS, and therefore exempted them. The university’s response to this claim was a lawsuit filed in 1971. Appeals and injunctions led to the case being dismissed, much to the chagrin of BJU. With the IRS informing them again of the revoking of their tax-exempt status, the university filed another lawsuit in 1975. What followed was an intricate game of taxes, as prefaced in the case documents: â€Å"After paying a portion of the federal unemployment taxes for a certain taxable year, the University filed a refund action in Federal District Court, and the Government counterclaimed for unpaid taxes for that and other taxable years. Holding that the IRS exceeded its powers in revoking the Universitys tax-exempt status and violated the Universitys rights under the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment, the District Court ordered the IRS to refund the taxes paid and rejected the counterclaim. † (461 U. S. 574, 1983). The case was held before the Supreme Court, where it was argued that the IRS had not misinterpreted the laws governing tax-exemption for a charitable, religious or educational institution and that â€Å"the right of a student not to be segregated on racial grounds in schools . . . is indeed so fundamental and pervasive that it is embraced in the concept of due process of law. (1983). It can be argued, that religion plays an integral role in the development of a person. Everyone has some form of a belief system or may follow a particular religion, or have faith in a creed. Recent research finds that in universities and colleges, a level of spirituality can help students in their educational experiences. According to Muller and Dennis, â€Å"college students, who reported experiencing higher levels of life change, both positive and negative, also scored lower on spirituality. Nevertheless, these students had scores indicative of a higher desire to find spirituality, even though their motivation to do so was low† (60). Universities that basis their education and courses around religious studies or practices perhaps enhance the university experience, however, does the belief of a university outweigh the belief of an individual? BJU believed that their educational policies were their right to uphold, despite staunch views on interracial dating and marriages. Around the time of the court case, they extended their admission policies to include single African Americans, and by the time the case was in full swing, were readily admitting all African American students. A change of heart towards their policies though was not enough for the IRS. They insisted that the university’s status still be revoked. Schools and universities have been bastions for molding a country’s future and in persisting with this case, the government and indeed the IRS were making more than just a stand against unethical policies. America was changing, and showcasing that there was no tolerance towards racism was not only monumental, but a necessity. Pascal Mubenga argues, that â€Å"desegregation in public schools has resolved on issue of financial support† (Struggle, p9). Indeed the struggle for many schools at the time in the southern parts of America, was understanding that segregation only hurt the country. In order for America to fully adopt a culture of freedom, it would have to learn tolerance and understanding. The â€Å"slavery† mentality was still marring organizations and communities. The decision of BJU v the U. S. was one that would finally put into action what was going to be acceptable practice, and what was not. In short, if educational institutes were going to keep their tax-exempt status, then it would mean the difference between tolerance and freedom of religion; or keeping to ‘slavery mentality’. BJU insisted that their First Amendment rights were being ignored. The Supreme Court, led by Justice Burger, disagreed. They voted 8-1 that it was in the public’s interest that they based their decision, and â€Å"that governmental interest substantially outweighs whatever burden denial of tax benefits places on petitioners exercise of their religious beliefs† (Hanna, 1983). It meant that in order to protect the freedom of religion and rights of the public, and of those rights of future students at BJU, it was imperative that the government apply the law as it was written. The IRS had not misused the law, and the message was clear: if a university wanted to keep their tax-exempt, then they were going to have to progress into more encompassing policies. The Supreme Court stated that, in the case of Bob Jones University, it did not meet the requirement of â€Å"providing beneficial and stabilizing influences in community life to be supported by taxpayers with a special tax status† – largely due to their racial policies, and it was these policies in particular which were racially discriminatory and therefore violated â€Å"fundamental national public policy† (Oyez, 2007). It had been argued that religious freedoms were as justified as any other. The Supreme Court rationalized that not all religious burdens are unconstitutional. It is perhaps alarming to realize that such policies at a university existed 35 years ago. It wasn’t that long ago when BJU had marked clearly in their student handbook that â€Å"students who date outside of their own race will be expelled† (Oyez). We live in a millennium where tolerance is vital and some communities in America still struggle with issues of racism. A university setting is one, traditionally centered around education, but true learning is not necessarily gained within a classroom, but from those we attend those classes with. Religious schools have just as much right to practice and educate as ones that are non-denominational, and arguably, their rights must also be protected. There should be tolerance towards religious school as well. However, such institutions should not endorse racism or discrimination. Their policies should be allowed to be guided by faith and beliefs, but not be considered a burden or provocative of hatred. At the heart of the BJU case, were policies on racism. The IRS was revoking their tax-exempt status because under law, the university failed to meet criteria to be considered as tax-exempt. Rightfully so, as was stated by the Supreme Court. Whilst it was a numbers game and an issue of taxes which led to this case being filed, the underlying message sent was one centered on freedoms. The United States government was not prepared to recognize any positive value in discriminatory procedures or policies, and while the Constitution protected the rights of the individual and their free will, the government was prepared to protect the rights of the public. In a country which has become increasingly multi-cultural the conclusion of this monumental case was a precedent for this occurring. Americans were reassured that the government were not going to recognize slavery mentality or endorse any form of segregation – they would and continue to protect the rights of the whole, so that we can all be individuals. Works Cited _. BOB JONES UNIVERSITY v. UNITED STATES, 461 U. S. 574 (1983), May 1983. FindLaw Case Resources http://laws. findlaw. com/us/461/574. html _. Bob Jones University v. US Oral Arguments. 1982, No 81-1. Oyez, US Supreme Court Media, http://www. oyez. org/cases/1980-1989/1982/1982_81_3/ _. Bob Jones University Handbook. Bob Jones University, 2005-2006. p13. _. The Oyez Project, Bob Jones University v. U. S. , 461 U. S. 574 (1983), available at: http://www. oyez. org/cases/1980-1989/1982/1982_81_3/ Hanna, Stanley J. â€Å"Bob Jones University v. United States: Interpretation and Conclusions. † Journal of Education Finance, v9 n2 p235-40 Fall 1983 Muller, Susan M. ; Dennis, Dixie L. â€Å"Life Change and Spirituality among a College Student Cohort†. Journal of American College Health, v56 n1 p55-60 Jul-Aug 2007 Mubenga, Pascal. â€Å"The Struggle of African American Students in the Public Schools† ERIC ID# ED491396, 2006 Online Submission http://www. eric. ed. gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet? accno=ED491396

The Greenwich Association for Retarded Citizens of Greenwich High :: essays research papers

The Greenwich Association for Retarded Citizens (G.A.R.C.) of Greenwich High The Greenwich Association for Retarded Citizens (G.A.R.C.) of Greenwich High is a group of students interested in interacting with disabled students. These students go to the high school as well, and look forward to getting to know us. Each of the students have different disabilities but they each have the desire to make friends. This group is totally volunteer basis for all of it's members, no one has to attend. I have been a member of this group for the three years I have attended in Greenwich High. Spending a lot of time with these children I have learned to understand that they are just looking to make friends.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I joined this group as a freshman because I had worked with children with Down Syndrome during the eighth grade at Central Middle School. My interest carried on through out the years because of the numerous fun times I have had, and have made friends with many of the girls. They are all very personable and pleasant to talk with. They each have special characteristics defining them from the others, making each of them special in different ways, just like the rest us.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aside from the meetings that we have every so often to discuss activities we can do, we usually do fun and interesting activities. We go out for pizza frequently because it seems to be the group consensus on what we would all like to eat. During the holidays we celebrate in interesting ways; on Halloween we have a party where every one gets dressed and brings candy. For the Christmas season we are going to celebrate with a party at a members house and listen to Christmas carols, and have dinner. We have had bake sales and have sold candy in order to raise money for the clubs activities. These are usually a success because every one participates and we all seem to function well as a group. When there are dances or football games at school we each take one of the girls and it's good for them because they get to interact with the rest of the school at a big function.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This club is not only fun, but it's like going to a meeting with some of your friends. We are a small group and we all get along. Since we are a small group it is also difficult for us to do a lot of things. It is difficult to educate the larger part of the public who doesn't know what these kids are like.

How to Solve a Crime? Essay

One dollar and eighty-seven cents. That was all Brass had on him. He laid a credit card on the bar counter and wished it luck. It only had to bear the price of a couple of rounds, but his salary and his expenses were not on speaking terms lately. It was Christmas in Las Vegas. Every year, it set him back until April. Which was tax time. Which set him back until Christmas. There was a comforting rhythm to it. ‘They have some good single malts,’ Catherine said, and ordered a beer. That was one of the things Brass liked about her. She had class, but didn’t make a man pay for it. Marg Helgenberger as Catherine Willows, Las Vegas Crime Scene Investigation senior supervisor. Catherine is the glamorous commander of a crack team of forensic criminologists It was 4:30am on Christmas Eve, meaning it was Christmas morning to anybody who had got some sleep in the interim, and crime scene investigators Catherine Willows and Nick Stokes had just finished dropping off bodies and registering the evidence they’d gathered at a messy murder scene. The fatal string of Christmas lights was wound around the female victim’s neck so many times the coroner was going to have to cut it from the corpse. The second victim was her husband; they assumed he was the one that did the strangling. With the steak knife in his neck, he’d only had just enough blood in him to finish the job. ‘The weird part,’ Nick remarked, leaning on the bar with his heavy forearms, ‘is the lights around her neck were still on when we got there.’ ‘It lent a certain festive air to the scene,’ Brass replied. Brass’s understudy for the evening, a young detective by the name of Ottman, known as ‘The Otter’ among the wittier senior staff, sat uncomfortably between Catherine and Brass. He looked ill. He hadn’t worked many murder scenes before, and this one wasn’t just bloody, it was ironic. Irony always made things worse. The knife was part of a gift set intended for the dead man. It had his monogram burned into the handle. For the veteran CSI team, it was just another couple of dead people, another raft of evidence and paperwork. Ottman cleared his throat before he spoke, a habit that irritated Brass. ‘There’s nothing festive about people killing each other on Christmas Eve,’ he objected. ‘He doesn’t mean it,’ Catherine said. ‘It’s awful. Every murder is awful. But if we mourn the dead every time we find them . . . ‘ ‘Some do,’ Brass interrupted. ‘They don’t last in the job.’ He fixed his melancholy eyes on Ottman and waited for the message to sink in. Before he could be sure it had, the drinks arrived. Beer all round except Ottman, who opted for one of those Tiger Woods non-alcoholic things that used to be an Arnold Palmer. The kid didn’t even know how to drink. Catherine decanted her beer into a glass. Nick picked at the label on his. George Eads as Nick Stokes. Formerly Catherine’s deputy, he has just been promoted to be her co-supervisor. Occasionally over-emotional. ‘Lot of murders this time of year,’ Nick said, in much the way he might observe it was a chilly night. Ottman cleared his throat. ‘People always get crazy around the holidays?’ he asked nobody in particular. ‘If you’re going to kill somebody, the season of joy is a popular time. Statistically speaking,’ Catherine replied. She checked her watch. Coming to the bar had been her idea: it was too late to go home and get in bed. She’d wake her daughter Lindsay up, and now that she was 18, Lindsay didn’t like early rising at Christmas. So Catherine was pretending it was the previous night, rather than the following morning. Nick had proposed they get coffee and breakfast, but he lived alone and his family was in Texas. He could lounge around all day. Catherine had a full schedule of family events, and breakfast at home was one of them. Brass glanced over at Ottman. The guy wasn’t cut out for this work. He was a fairly good detective. Book smart, but not great at murders. He would be best at property crime, hustles, something like that. Brass’s first reaction to any weak-hearted cop was always to push his buttons, expose the soft parts and toughen them up – that, or drive him out of the department before he made a costly mistake. Still, it was Christmas Eve or morning, according to your tastes, and the poor guy was clearly having a hard time. ‘Sometimes, even with murder, there’s Christmas spirit,’ Brass said. ‘The steak knives were good quality,’ Nick agreed. Catherine shook her head. ‘Go easy,’ she said, observing Ottman’s discomfort. ‘No, seriously,’ Brass continued. ‘Remember that time, it must have been seven, eight years ago, the one with the 60-G watch?’ Nick raised his bottle to his mouth, trying to recall, then snapped his fingers and set the bottle back down. ‘The big guy and the little guy.’ ‘And the dancer,’ Catherine added. She never forgot the dancers. Ottman had his hands folded in his lap, his drink untouched in front of him. He clearly didn’t want to ask. But the others were looking expectantly at him, so he asked anyway, rather than let the silence get too long. ‘So how was there murder and Christmas spirit?’ Brass took a pull of his beer, dabbed at his lips with his handkerchief, and twisted around so he could face Ottman. ‘I’ll tell you,’ he said. It was a warm Christmas night back in the high times when people went to Las Vegas just to get rid of their excess cash – by the truckload. There was still plenty of crime, but it was a different kind of crime, the kind that comes from an opportunityrich environment. These days, it’s the kind of crime that comes from a lack of opportunity. The difference is academic to most victims. Gil Grissom was supervisor back then. There had been various robberies, a couple of fatal accidents and a gang fight that night; nothing serious. Then the call came in, around 9pm on Christmas Eve. ‘The call came in from the Mediterranean Hotel on the Strip. Maid finds a corpse in one of the VIP suites. He’s lying on the floor in his boxer shorts,’ Brass said. ‘Ambulance shows up, medics think it could be foul play, they call us. I was first on the scene, me and a couple of patrolmen. ‘Hell of a suite he had, about the size of Yankee Stadium. Looked like the Pope decorated it. As crime scenes go, not too shabby – especially compared to Latrine Alley, where at that moment most of the graveyard shift was on its hands and knees, looking for shell casings with a flashlight.’ Brass took a swig from his beer. Ottman cleared his throat, but Brass got there first: ‘So we take a right at the grand piano and there’s the victim, in the split-level living room.’ ‘Dead,’ Nick added, in case Ottman was as slow as he thought he was. Paul Guilfoyle as Captain James Brass, a Las Vegas Police Department homicide detective who does things by the book ‘Fatally so,’ Brass resumed. ‘Frank â€Å"Bozo† Bozigian, heir to the automotive floor mat fortune. Big guy. Always rents this same suite, every weekend. He was lying face down on the carpet with his head busted open against this gold-plated coffee table the size of my house. ‘The table was interesting. There were five lines of coke laid out on it, and a stack of $20 bills that would keep a stripper in business for five years. And most importantly, a chunk of meat with hair in it – from where this individual’s head came in contact with the corner.’ ‘An accident,’ Ottman interjected. ‘Yeah, except for one thing: Bozigian’s knuckles are all busted up. There’s blood under his fingernails. Maybe it’s relevant, maybe it’s not, but this guy was in a fight some time around when he died.’ ‘Sounds circumstantial,’ Ottman said. Brass ignored him and carried on, determined to get to the exciting part: ‘So I look around while I’m waiting for these two CSIs to show up, and I can’t figure it out. Looks like Bozigian just fell down and busted his head, right? Death by misadventure. Except he’s only got his drawers on. And when I look around, all I find is a fully packed suitcase in the bedroom. Where’s the clothes he walked in with? Where’s his shoes? ‘Only thing the victim has on is gold chains and a wristwatch, which is one of these Swiss automatics that sets you back 60 grand. Basically, I’m stumped.’ ‘Which doesn’t happen that much,’ Catherine said, and raised her glass to Brass. ‘Here’s to Christmas,’ Brass said, and they all drank. ‘Took us a while to get there,’ Nick said. ‘The other major scene, the gang fight, was a mess. Gil Grissom and the rest of us were working it for hours. When we finally got out of there, me and Catherine showed up at the Mediterranean looking like trash pickers.’ He laughed at the memory. Catherine smiled. It hadn’t been funny at the time. Nick went on: ‘There wasn’t any camera surveillance on that floor, but we got hotel security to secure video from all the elevators. Then we went into the suite. The deceased was a huge guy, twice my size, steroid muscle all over him. Shaved head, tattoo of a pole dancer on his back.’ ‘The tattoo probably scared the maid more than the blood,’ Catherine added. ‘No question about the head injury,’ Nick said. ‘He got it from the table. Scalp is split open with a furrow gouged out of the skin, and on the iron corner of the table there’s a corresponding scrap of tissue with identical hair on it. You could see at a glance this guy hit that table hard enough to kill him. But w e never guess at anything if we can prove it instead. So we take a set of one-to-one pictures of the whole scene. Then we collect the tissue, the hair, the money, the cocaine. Then it’s time to move the body.’ ‘Corpses are always heavy, but this guy weighed a ton,’ Catherine observed. Brass clapped Ottman on the shoulder. ‘It took all three of us to roll him over,’ he said. ‘If you’d been there, Ottman, it would have been easy.’ Nick stepped in to continue the story. ‘The front of him was more interesting, from a forensic perspective. He’d been bleeding, and it had pooled under him and glued him to the carpet, which is one reason he was so hard to move. His hands were clenched into fists. We found some blonde hair caught under a chain on his wrist. Several skin tags. They got pulled out hard.’ ‘He wasn’t blonde, needless to say,’ Catherine added. ‘So we bagged it. There was blood, maybe even tissue, under his fingernails, so we went to bag his hands, too, and that’s when we start realising the watch is a factor after all. I remember the make. It was a gold Vacherin Constantin automatic, and like Brass says, it was worth five figures. ‘But it didn’t fit his wrist. Had a dive-style bracelet on it – you fit those exactly to size on a watch like that, by adding or subtracting links with tiny screws. It was way too tight. So we opened the clasp and found blood on the underside of the bracelet. No lividity where it squeezed the skin, so as far as we can tell, the watch was put on after death. And get this – a patent fingerprint on the crystal. I mean you could see it in ordinary light, it was that clear, and printed in blood.’ Ottman cleared his throat, and Brass suddenly understood why they called him ‘The Otter’. When he swallowed, he looked like an otter eating clams. I t was perfect. William Petersen as Dr Gilbert ‘Gil’ Grissom, Catherine’s predecessor as CSI senior supervisor ‘If there was blood on the watch, did it correspond with the corpse?’ asked Ottman. ‘Did his hand fall under his head, or maybe his knuckles bled on it?’ ‘No,’ Catherine said. ‘But good question. His hands were down at his sides, palms downward, and the blood was all up under his head. His knuckles had stopped bleeding some time before death.’ ‘So the blood either came from the earlier fight, or it came from somebody else putting the watch on him after the guy was dead.’ Ottman nodded as he figured it out. Brass added: ‘That’s not all, though. It was on his right wrist, which makes sense if he’s a southpaw, but it wasn’t a left-handed watch.’ ‘So we looked around,’ Nick said, ‘collected whatever we could, and then I accompanied the body to the morgue. Bra ss and Catherine went to LVPD to file the preliminary report.’ ‘That was it until we had some more information,’ Brass said. ‘So back at Crime Central, I did a little research. Bozigian wasn’t unknown to the authorities.’ Brass paused. ‘Bozigian was from Glendale, California, but spent most of his time in Vegas, always at the best hotels. Looking at his rap sheet, he was one of these playboy types with a fat trust fund that didn’t go as far as he wanted it, so he was always looking for more money. But he was too lazy to actually earn it, so he went for the quick scores: private bookmaking, junk real estate, money laundering through clubs. Most of all, gambling. ‘He loved the cards, so even if he made any money, he lost it just as fast. Got into some wild bets. People got hurt. But he never did a day’s time.’ Nick counted off a few details on his fingers: ‘The assistant coroner determined Bozigian’s time of death to be an estimate of one to three hours prior to the maid finding his body. So I checked out the hotel’s elevator security footage, looking for any visitors to that floor during this time frame. ‘Sure enough, a guy gets in the elevator alone. He’s suspicious because he’s got a towel to his face. Can’t get a good look at him. He rode up from the parking garage, exits Bozigian’s floor. Five minutes later, he gets in the same elevator car and rides back down.’ ‘By now,’ Catherine interjected, ‘Grissom is working another scene, which is a jewellery-store robbery. Apparently this guy drove his monkey-brown Toyota truck straight through the front window of a store on the Strip, jumped out, grabbed what he could, and drove off. Not a real criminal mastermind. They have his plates and everything. Name is Henry Carson. There’s an APB out on the truck.’ Catherine said: ‘Brass and I have ten minutes free, so we decide to go crazy and get a cup of coffee at the place next door. Halfway across the police department parking lot, we see the truck. Same plates, same colour, the front all smashed in. ‘Out gets this little tiny man, smaller than me. And it looked like somebody ran him over with a train. Face pummelled. Blood all over his shirt. He sees Brass, walks up to him, and says, â€Å"I’m turning myself in. I killed a man named Frank Bozigian.† ‘ But how could one of these little people murder a 300lb man mountain with just their bare hands?

The Anatomical Structure Of Different Organelles - 1442 Words

Analyze the anatomical structure of ten different organelles in the cell and their respective functions. The cell’s nonmembranous organelles include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes. Membranous organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria. Organelle Location and function Cytoskeleton Serves as the cell s skeleton. It is an interior protein system that gives the cytoplasm quality and adaptability. The cytoskeleton of all cells is made of microfilaments, halfway fibers, and microtubules. Muscle cells contain these cytoskeletal parts in addition to thick fibers. The fibers and microtubules of the cytoskeleton frame a dynamic system whose ceaseless rearrangement influences cell shape and capacity. Microvilli Numerous cells have little, finger-formed projections of the plasma film on their uncovered surfaces. These projections, called microvilli (solitary, microvillus), significantly increment the surface territory of the phone presented to the extracellular environment. Likewise, they cover the surfaces of cells that are effectively engrossing materials from the extracellular liquid, for example, the cells coating the stomach related tract. Microvilli have broad associations with the cytoskeleton. A center of small scale fibers hardens each microvillus and grapples it to the cytoskeleton at the terminal web. 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